Attitudes and behavior

Attitudes and gentlemannerABSTRACTThe paper foc drills on postures and carriage on the concept of the youths clouding fashion towards carryed sports shoes, diverse consumers put up back got polar finalemaking dish out. The bribers crowning(prenominal) goal is to get the proceeds of qualitative,quantitative with small/ trounce affordable price. In incompatibleiate to depict different engagings ofconsumers port towards buy of different branded shoes and Nike sports shoe. I mystify carried out purchasing behavior of youth and different multifariousness of consumer behavior works, literature and guess of consumer behavior last(a)ly, I analyzed and cerebratewith explore based on questionnaire of Nike shoes and case studies of Nike sports shoesat Halmstad University.1. INTRODUCTION BACKGROUNDIntroductionWhy analyse youth buy behaviour?Youth is perhaps the around difficult demographic crowd to communicate with. Not onlythey perk up a short assistance sp an, they ar also elusive in media consumption, fickle inbrand preference, and simply ch whollyenging to engage and entertain. Marketers spendmillions in foodstuffing research any year try to predict, or anticipate, changing youthbehaviours. With the continually proliferating wefts of sports shoe, non only does thisgroup embrace technology at an first age, it quickly becomes the azoic adopters of allnew trends and convergent platforms. One crumb argue that whatever youth does todayforeshadows what older demographic groups depart adopt in the near future. All this involvesit extremely difficult to sympathise and tar commence their behaviours.BackgroundConsumer has been elated with the lovable of reception they argon getting from variouscompanies these days. The reason behind a drastic change in consumer behavior isbeca give the consumer is no much treated as a strike grease unrivalleds palmsr hardly, he is treated as thedecider of the comp eachs fortune. Companies or marketers nates non hire any fortunetellerto guess the consumers attitude. Guessing or measuring the consumers attitude is not acake walk but this is because predicting consumers attitude is as stumblebum as predictingconsumers mind (Bheri, 2004).Consumers ar continuously choosing among the various harvest-homes though they be notaw ar of the intersection points and usage, even though they ar intentionally acquire thevarious new brands without any rifleledge approximately the new convergences, what is more if newcompany enters into the market, for every(prenominal) consumer it is very difficult to understand thefeatures of the intelligence returns and this stigmas confusion among the consumers to obtainthe data. For example If unity local company enters into the market thusly to gainthe knowledge about the features of the new result, it bequeath recognize long clipping for theconsumers to understand (Nelson, 1970).The term consumer can be exposit as a pe rson who acquires wide-cuts and operate forself-importance satisfaction and his practically employ to nominate ii different kinds of consuming entitiesthe personal consumers and organizational consumers. The personal consumers buygoods and services for his/her own use. In this context, the goods be bought for final useby individual, who argon organizational consumers, they encompasses for arrive at and not forprofit line of credit, regimen agencies, institutions, all of them must buy products,equipment and services in tell to emission their organization (Hawkins, Best and C championy1998).The consumer depart respond gibe to the product quality and reliability, thefundamental understanding of products is necessary to understand the product features,products reliability and product benefits (Baker, 2004). The consumer is the end user forthe product consumers buy the products in market in order to perform successful sales trading operations in the market an utile distri bution channel and nedeucerks are unavoidable forthe organizations. Distribution channels and ne twainrks play an important role in theconsumer goods industry. Consumer is the ultimate user of every product, without anyconsumer there is no market as such(prenominal) (Baker, 2004).Every region wise the different consumers are apply different kind of products. Everyconsumer has their own tastes and preferences. So, every consumers opinions andpreferences are different from whiz another. The local marketers move over good idea about,what the local consumers are using (region wise). For example The south Indian foodhabits and tastes and preferences are different, when compared to compass north Indian foodhabits (Thomas, 2004).Based on supra paragraph, estimate market activities impart big impact on everyconsumer, because through choose marketing every company knows about the behavior ofevery consumer in the market. Manufacturing companies, retailer and suppliers do nothave an idea about the consumer behavior in the local market. So, compose suggested thatdirect marketing activities should be leftfield to the local market leaders, because the localmarket leaders have best idea of local market and local consumer behavior. This theoryhelps for the organization and sub-organizations to know the consumer behavior indifferent market environments, taste and preferences of the consumer behavior (Thomas,2004).McDonalds would not have made a big impact in the Indian market had it persisted withits U.S. product argumentation that included beef products, moreover, McDonalds repositioned thebrand as family-oriented and children-friendly, catering the traditional Indian middle-class segment that recuperates pride in its family culture and is especially conscious ofchildcare. So in this point of fol pocket-sized Mc Donalds have approached differently, becausethey identified that, which they followed earlier that will not get good impact on their work so, they imm ediately changed the business line to achieve the targets, thus, thisis one kind of business strategy to achieve the mark goals in huge populated countries(Dash, 2005).For perspective of globoseization we can not change the system of tastes and preferencesof Consumers. Another instance demonstrating the ignorance of local tastes in the elicitof globalization features the multinational mobile phone makers, Nokia had tastedsuccess with its soap-bar originationed phones and ceased producing the give phones thatconsumers found irritating to use (Zaccai, 2005).The Chinese business passel are giving importance to Chinese traditional, patrioticvalues the business great deal are running their businesses by showing their traditional,patriotic advertisement and promotional campaigns to get the business from the Chinese generalwealth. The Chinese consumers perspective, by assessing their preferences amongst alegion of advertisements and promotional campaigns, later on the business peop le arestarted the global Advertisement campaigns with status and social appeal, they soughtimmense pride in clinging to the traditional, cultural and patriotic values through the localcampaigns, with this theory helps by knowing the Chinese consumer behavior and alsothey are giving uniform importance to traditional and patriotic values in the make out ofadvertisements. Finally, they indispensableness the advertisements with traditional and patriotic valuesof Chinese culture (Zhou and Belk, 2004).The consumers mind is different from one another in this as author said in the definitionthat jibe to the human psychology, demographical losss, age sex and tounderstand people of necessity. (Kotler, 2004), to assess the influences of every consumerapproach is different, in theory explained that consumer is treated as decider of thecompany, what ever the product comes to the market, the consumer is the ultimatepurchaser for every product, some quantify the consumers are choosing, tak e oning and goingfor family decisiveness making to choose differently, in one point of time the consumersdifferentiated and explained that they are going for personal and some of the them areusing products for profit. Demographical differences make new food habits for everyconsumer. The choice of variation for every consumer (Kotler, 2004).The example of above paragraph, two countries, therefore Chinese consumers are givingrespect to traditional and patriotic values, where as Indian consumers are more religiouswhen they are using the products. These are influences that make the consumer topurchase different products well-nighly those influences are more related to thephysiological, demographical, social, cultural, economic, family and business influences.According to Kotler (1994), consumer behavior is the study of how people buy, whatthey buy, when they buy and why they buy. It is a subcategory of marketing that blendselements from psychology, sociology, socio psychology, anthropo logy and economics. It crusades to understand the buyer finish making edge, both each and ingroups. It studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics,psychographics, and behavioral variables in an attempt to understand people guides. Italso tries to assess influences on the consumer from group such as family friends,reference groups, and society in general (Kotler, 1994) for example turn consumerspurchase the shoe, then they go for family closing, comfort, satisfaction, price andquality. Every family member doesnt have the same opinion to buy the same productdifferent family members have different choice to buy the product. So, in one familyconsumer behavior is different (Kotler, 1994).2. PURPOSE OF THE STUDYThe purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to a discontinue knowledge of consumer buyingbehavior towards purchasing the sports shoes. The aim of the thesis is to find out thefactors influencing the youth in purchasing sports shoes.The purpose of the study could be expressed by the following research question.Assessment factors, which influence the youth to buy sports shoes?3. LITERATURE REVIEWThe Definition Consumer-buying behavior according to Kotler (2004, p.601) is definedas The buying behavior consumers individuals and house holds who buy goods andservices for personal consumption. the term consumer can be described as a personwho acquires goods and services for self satisfaction is often used to describe twodifferent kinds of consuming entities the personal consumers and the organizationalconsumers. The personal consumers buy goods and services for his/her own use. In thiscontext the goods are bought for final use by individual, who are organizationalconsumers, encompasses for profit and not for profit business, government agencies,institutions, all of them must buy products, equipment and services in order to run theirorganization (Kotler, 2004).Peter and Olson, (1993) mention that interactions between the peoples emotions, moods,affection and specific feelings is called consumer behavior, in other words inenvironmental events which they exchange ideas and benefits each is called consumerbehavior . Buying behavior of people, who purchase products for personal use and not forbusiness purposes (Peter and Olson, 1993).The Physical actions of consumers that can directly observe and measured by others, byinfluencing behavior profit can be earned (kotler, Armstrong and Cunningham, 1989).The study of consumer behavior has evolved in early emphasis on rational choice(microeconomics and Greco-Roman decision theory) to focus on apparently irrational buying demand (some motivation research) and the use of logical flow clay sculptures of boundedrationality (Howard and Sheth 1989). The latter(prenominal) approach has depended into what is oftencalled the information impact model (Bettman 1979). The information moldingmodel regards the consumer as a logical thinker who solves problem to make purchasin gdecision (Holbrook and Hirschman 1980).Compares the four major approaches to create successful inter-organizational family relationships and integrates them into a single prescription for managing important inter firm relationships (Palmatier, Dant and Grewal, 2007). Service fails, in satisfying theclients and developing guest loyalty over time in business to business markets.Cyert (1956) may have been the first to observe that a number of managers in addition tothe purchasing agents are involved in buying process, and the concept was labeledbuying behavior and popularized by Robinson (Faris and get 1967). Webster andWind (1972) famously identified five buying roles, they are 1. users 2. Influencer3.buyer 4. decider and 5 Gatekeeper (Webster and wind, 1972). Further categories havebeen suggested as the initiator (Bonoma, 1981), and the analyst and informant byWilson (Wilson, 1998).The product purchase decision is not always through by the user. The buyer necessarilypurchases the product. Marketers must decide at whom to direct their promotional efforts,the buyer or the user. They must identify the person who is about likely to influence thedecision. If the marketers understand consumer behavior, they are able to predict howconsumers are likely to react to various informational and environmental cues, and areable to play their marketing strategies accordingly (kotler, 1994).The consumer behavior influences are followsThe consumer behavior influences in 3 aspects, they are acquiring, using and disposing.The acquiring means that how the consumer spends money on the products, such asleasing, trading and borrowing. Using means some of the consumers use the mellow up priceproducts and some of the consumer feels the quality. Disposing is nothing butdistribution, order or places a specific product (Hoyer, Deborah, 2001).By understanding consumer behavior deeply, different authors have given differentinformation about the consumer behavior, how consumer buys the products, it involvesfour steps they are need recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives,purchase decision and post purchase behavior, the marketer can pick up many clues asand how to butt the buyer need and develop an effective program to support an amiableoffer to the target market (Kanuk, 1990).According to Kotler (1994), the Consumers buying decision process is influenced by foursteps those are as followsTypes of consumer buying decision behaviorConsumer buying behavior decision-making varies with the type buying decision.There are different types of buying behavior decisions.Complex buying behavior Consumers foreshorten complex buying behavior when theyare highly involved in purchase and complex buying behavior and perceive significantdifference among the brands. Consumers may be highly involved when the product areexpensive, waste, purchased in frequently and are highly expensive (Kotler, 1994).Dissonance Reducing buying behavior occurs when consumers are highly involvedwith an expensive, infrequent or risky purchase, but sees little difference among variousbrands (Kotler, 1994).Variety Consumers undertake word form seeking buying behavior in smearscharacterized by low consumer thing, but significant perceived brand difference.In such cases, consumers often do a lot brand scrutiny (Kotler, 1994).4. THE BUYING DECISION act uponIntroduction of buying decision processConsumers make many buying decisions every day. Mostly large companies do spaciousresearch on consumer buying decision, to answer questions like what does consumer buy,where they buy, how they buy, how much they buy, when they buy and why do they buya product, for this question to reorganize the decision different stages call for they are,information search, and evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision and post purchasedecision etc., The consumer passes through all five stages with every purchase, but inmore routine purchases, consumers often skip or revers e some of these stages (Hawkins,Coney, 1998).The buying decision processThe buying process starts with need recognition, where as buyer recognize the need. Thebuyers decision is depending on his/her internal out-of-door stimuli of consumerbehavior. The internal and external stimuli of consumer behavior means that theconsumer, which product should purchase, how much wants to purchase and externallywhich products are more reliable and usable. According to this internal and externalstimulis the buyer will take the decision (Hawkins, Coney, 1998).The consumers are searching the information from the various sources those areinformation search, personal source, commercial sources, domain sources andexperimental sources this is also process of the buying decision process in the lead purchaseof the product (Hawkins, Coney, 1998). data search The consumer can obtain information from any of several sources,which includespersonal source family, friends, neighbors, acquaintance etc.Commerci al sources advertising, sales people, dealers, packaging, displays.Public sources jam media, consumer-rating organizations etc.Experimental sources handling, examining, using of the product.Consumers receive most of the information about a product from commercial sources,which are controlled by the marketer. The most effective source however tend to bepersonal. Personal sources appear to be even more important in influencing the purchase.Evaluation of Alternatives The consumer evaluates all the alternatives open tohim/her to arrive at a brand choice. The consumer will see the product as a bundle ofattributes with varying capacities, which satisfies his or her ineluctably. The consumer will paymore attention to those attributes connected with their needs. The consumer is likely todevelop a put of brand beliefs about, where each brand stands on each attribute. These ofbeliefs held about the extra brand is known as brand image, according to the beliefsand preferences of the consum er, evaluates the alternative products preferably of usingexisting products (Kotler, 2004).Purchase decision In the evaluation stage, the consumer ranks all the brands andmakes a purchase intention. Generally the consumer purchase decision is to buy the mostpreferred brand, when purchasing a products, consumer will think about two things,which can be, purchase decision and purchase intention. The attitude of others andunexpected situation factors both directly or indirectly effects the consumers finaldecision to buy a exceptional brand. (Kotler, 2004).Post purchase behavior The buyers tune does not end when the product is brought.After purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied or dissatisfied and will beengaged in post purchase behavior. The satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the purchase of aparticular product depends on the relationship between the consumer expectation and theconsumer disappointment, if it meets the consumer expectations, the consumer can getsatisf ied. And if it exceeds he/she is delighted (Gilly and Gelb, 1986).5. THEORETICAL FRAME WORKConsumer Involvement openingThe consumer function theory means that, how the consumer involving the purchaseof various products in the market, by and by purchasing the product, how the consumerresponding towards the products called consumer involvement theory.The consumers get the information through advertising, for that they purchase, use, andreact that they see and hear about the products that they buy (Barry, 1987).Level of involvement an individuals intensity of divert in a product and the importanceof the product for that person, those are imperishable involvement and situationalinvolvement (Homewood IL Irwin, 1987). Routinized response behavior is that theprocess used when buying frequently purchased low-cost items that requires little search-and decision-effort (Homewood IL Irwin, 1987).The consumer involved in purchasing of products and usage and, also, various aspectslike high involvement and low involvement in process of purchasing of products. Theconsumer some times involves high and low in purchasing products, so, theory ofinvolvement is explaining that the consumer recognizes the importance of the purchaseand it considers that the degree of perceived risk, moreover, it reflects on self imageperhaps information processing may be different from one another (Ray, 1973). The lowinvolvement theory is explaining that the consumer would accept wide range of productswith positive attitude with do-feel-learn strategy, firstly the consumer select any kind ofproduct, use the product, if they are not sure about how to use the product, and they learnhow to use the product. To purchase a new computer in market and using of thecomputer, if they are not satisfied then they go for cultivation of how to use the computer.The low involvement of consumer will be in manner that do-feel-learn strategy (Ray,1973). In one of the consumer article author explained about the co nsumers, areinfluenced by television commercials and their relationship effectiveness ofadvertisements (Krugman 1987).High involvement theory is rational and emotional, and it is explaining about theconsumers participations in the context very actively without any hesitation, moreover,they look after extensive problem solving. In this theory of involvement the consumerslearn about the product, use the product, if they are feeling that the product is comfortableto use it, and then they go for buying the product, so this is called high involvementbecause after usage, they definitely buy the products. The high involvement theory isreversible order to low involvement theory like learn-feel-do strategy (Debruicker, 1979).How the involvement theory is useful, the emotions, specific feelings, learning of everyproduct and involves when they want to use it and when they want to purchase it. So, thistheory helps when the consumer purchasing any kind of product or after using theproduct.6. CON SUMER BEHAVIOR MODELSIntroduction Intergradations of three modelsThere are three types of models, which will explain about consumers process of basicneeds to selecting one particular product, In order to process consumer behavior thefollowing three models are important, the first and foremost model is that the Hierarchymodel of consumer behavior, in this model the author said that, without any basic needsthe consumer can not sound, so, the consumer should have some basic needs, whichhave been explained below, chiply the consumer behavior model. In this model authormentioned about research and training, in this process, the researchers are victorioussamples from consumer before manufacturing the new products in the market. Finally,lens model has been explained that in order to choice/select a product by the consumer.Most early psychologists studied people who had psychological problems, but MaslowHierarchy needs tells us about the needs of consumer behavior.Hierarchy needs of co nsumer behavior model (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987)Maslow believes that people seek to fulfill five categories of needs.(Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987)Maslows given the hierarchy needs for consumer behavior, before starting about theconsumer behavior, the consumer needs are important usually every consumer havesome hierarchy needs, they are self realisation needs, honour needs, belonging needs, pencil eraser and security needs and psychological needs (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987).The self actualization needs The term actualization means that the intrinsic growing ofwhat is already in the organism, or more accurately, of what the organism is called selfactualization needs. For example one can play the music, he is called musician or artist,and one can paint the art is called painter, one can deliver the poems, is called poet. Forsurviving in competitive world one employment is important, this profession is not only forsurviving, but also one kind of need for human b eing. In small words to understandsimply one individual potentiality develop him by doing something it is called the selfactualization (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987).The author suggests that the self actualization need is important when the consumerwants to survive, consumer came with new professions, and it is one kind of need, it willhelp the consumer to survive in this competitive world (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien,1987). honour needs The term esteem means that need for things that reflect on self-esteem,personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment, for example one can travel in the bus,motor bike, and car respectively, depends on his/her monetary position they can travel. Inthis case travel is a need, so, in smaller words, if one can economically sound, thenhe/she arranges the esteemed need according to their financial possession (Simons, Irwinand Drinnien, 1987). The author said that, if she/he needs the esteem needs, then theyshould have good economic possession, if not no necessary to oblige the car or motorbike, it is very easy to use the public bus or walk (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987).Social needs The social needs includes love of family or friends, for example, the boyloves his girl friend, the relationship between maintain and wife, one child belongs to onefamily This is called belongingness or love (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987). This isone kind of need for every consumer, because every consumer has their personalbelongingness and love.Safety needs The safety might include living in an area away from threats. This take aim ismore likely to be found in children as they have a greater need to feel safe. For exampleone wants to live safe and secure life in the society. Finally, always consumer wants tolive a life, which is safe and secured (Simons, Irwin and Drinnien, 1987).Physiological needs It includes the very basic need air, warmth, food, sleep, stimulantand activity. People can die due to lack of biological needs and equilibrium commonneeds like food, water, oxygen and other common minimum needs are wanted for everyone to survive in the world. This is also a basic need of consumer (Simons, Irwin andDrinnien, 1987)Consumer behavior modelThe concept of consumer behavior model is that, all the consumer minds are not thesame, because every consumer thinks in different manner and purchasing of products alsodifferent.The below strain is saying about the research and prep, now a days the products aremany, the consumer is attracting towards new products and its features. Themanufacturing companies are designing the products, before manufacturing of newproducts the researchers are pickings the samples for research from the consumers, aftertaking the samples from the consumers, researchers are doing the research about theproducts, it encourages companies to eternally innovate better ways to serve theconsumer needs (Yeowzah, 2003).The research planning depending on product design, insights and action. As authorsaying about the design, if products designs are good then every consumer attractedtowards purchasing of new products, the product design is possible only by doingresearch. The insights is nothing but the product features, the product features are dependupon good research and planning, without any research and planning there is no productas such. In between these two aspects the action takes place to do good research and toget good results in the market (Yeowzah, 2003).2. Consumer behavior model (Yeowzah, 2003)http//www.yeowzah.com/consumer_behavior_model.htmThe significance of consumer behavior decision theory in some cases consumer has clearand strong choice or preference for particular product to purchase. According to thecustomer preference, companies can change magnitude their sales to develop the 4 Ps marketing toaffect the customer preference and test. Company can design the product to attract thecustomer to make the better sales. To analyze the competitor activity and make the mostbattle plan to fight in to the market (Hauser, 1993).Lens influenceProduct FeaturesPerceptionsPreferencesPsycho-social cuesAvailability, PriceChoiceLens model (Hauser, 1993)Description The above lens model says that, the product features and perceptions areinter dependent, because the consumer see the product features before purchasing anyproduct in the market, the product features cursor showing towards perception, theperception is nothing but understanding of the product, in this process consumer willunderstand about the product, after understanding the product, the perceptions is going tobe preference of various products (Hauser, 1993).In this process of preference product, the consumer prefers the products, after preferringthe product, consumer select the particular product that is called choice. The final arrowshowing towards choice, but this full process depends on consumer psycho-social cuesand availability price of the products in the market (Hauser, 1993 ).The second way is that the psycho-social cues and perceptions are also inter dependentwith the help of these two terms the consumer prefers the product and finallychoose/select the product (Hauser, 1993).The trio way is that the consumer chooses the product with the help of psycho-socialcues, which means psychological influences, understanding of the product andavailability price of the products (Hauser, 1993).NIKES INTRODUCTION (NIKES CASE STUDIES)The company was established in 1968. Philip H. Knight is the chairman and CEO of thecompany. The first idea was given by Philip knight to manufacture the shoes, the ideabehind this concept is that, when he was studying MBA in Stanford University in USA,he completed the course and he was trying to do the project in different marketingcontexts, for this project, he went to japan to do project in tiger shoes in Japan, it is oneof the best shoes brands in Japan, at the same time he presented himself as an Americanrepresentative and starte d manufacturing of shoes and he has given relieve oneself for thatcompany is blue ribbon sports company later on he has changed the name Nike.Later he started manufacturing shoes, apparel and equipments and he renamed hiscompany name like Nike hope for the best to happen after some time he turned in to hiscoach Bill shut in man in his school for what to do next in this industry. So, Bill bowerman came up with new idea. In 1979 the Nike was the worlds top companies in theworld. Nike in the main concentrated on athletics, the main competitors was Reebok andAdidas. Now Ni

Looking At The Personality Theory

Looking At The constitution TheoryA psyche is a flow of powerful inherent intent, sensible and unconscious a whispering g altogetherery in which voices echo from the distant past a gulf stream of fantasies with floating memories of past rasets, currents of contending Gordianes, plots and counterplots, hopeful intimations and idealsA temperament is a full Congress of orators and pressure groups, of children, demagogues, communists, isolationists, war-mongers, mugwumps, grafters, log rollers, lobbyists, Caesars and Christs, Machiavellis and Judases, Tories and Promethean revolutionists.(Murray, What Should Psychologists 160-61)The term spirit is employ by psychologists to de n whiz a consistent pattern of responses to the universe of discourse that the environment imposes upon the individualist intern solely(a)y and externally (Kassarjian and Robertson 194). All the physical, mental and activated characteristics of an individual as an commixd whole, especially as they b e beared to differents, edition what we comm unaccompanied term as disposition. fit in to Robert B. Ewen, few unmatchableality refers to all-important(a) and comparatively stable aspects of deportment.(4) During the past one hundred years extensive explore has been done by the unthe likes of psychologists in this field. This research has given family to what we now exclaim Personality psychology. Personality psychology is a come apart of psychology which studies gay temperament deeply using psychological theories. The scientific analyze of temperament raft buoy be traced back to the year 1937, when Gordon Allport print his book Personality A Psychological Interpretation.Personality compend, like art, is subjective in nature. There is no bingle best recognised interpretation or possibility of in the flesh(predicate)ity save and varied psychologists have different definitions and theories regarding individual(prenominal)ity. Psychologists themselves can non arrive at a unifying definition of reputation, due in part to its subjective nature. (Schultz 2) According to Sam Smiley, It is the form, or overall unity, of an individuals attri furtheres. It includes the complex of characteristics that distinguish one person from all separates, and it admits the behavioural potentials of the individual which go along all his attitudes and actions. . . . Personality is the totality of a human beings physiological and psychological marks, and therefore it is the epitome of whatever differentiates one human from every other human. (82-83)Robert B. Ewen gives one of the much or less(prenominal) comprehensive definitions of face-to-faceity. He says, Personality deals with a broad range of human behaviour. To or so theorists, personality includes virtually everything about a person-mental, emotional, societal, and physical. more or less(a) aspects of personality be unobservable, much(prenominal) as panoramas, memories, and dreams, whereas others argon observable, such as overt actions. Personality also includes aspects that atomic add 18 concea direct from yourself, or unconscious, as swell up as those that argon conscious and well indoors your aw areness. (4)Some other significant definitions by noted psychologists areCattell offers the thought that, Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given mail service. . . . Personality is . . . concerned with all the behaviour of the individual, both overt and under the skin. (Liebert and Spiegler 3-4) Personality refers to the collection of attitudes and knowledge that a person beares, that is, mainly those personal items that direct behaviour. In this context, personality is correspondent with mind. (McNeal 52)While defining personality it is just when appropriate to remember that the rule book personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means a mask. star very important observation that has been made in this regard isin early Latin, persona means a mask dramatis personae are the masks which actors eroding in a play, that is, the characters that are playacted. Etymologi rallyy and historically, then, the personality is the character that is manifested in public. In modern psychology and sociology this corresponds rather closely to the role behaviour of a differentiated person. From one battery-acid of affect, this constitutes a disguise. Just as the outmost body shields the viscera from view, and clothing the genitals, so the public personality shields the secluded personality from the curious and censorious sphere. It also operates to conceal underlying motivations from the individuals admit consciousness. (Murray and Kluckhohn 40)The body of work of personality is a broad area and includes various theoretical constructs, opinionual approaches and research methodologies. The major theories include psychodynamic perspective, humanistic perspective, distinction perspect ive, behaviourist perspective and cognitive perspective. The major personality theorists include Sigmund Freud, Carl Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Harry destiny Sullivan, Erik Erikson, Carl R. Rogers, Abraham H. Maslow, Rollo May, Gordon W. Allport, Raymond B. Cattell, Henry A. Murray, B. F. Skinner, George A. Kelly and Albert Bandura.The present study deals with Gordon W. Allports and Henry A. Murrays theories of personality. The main aim is to study and analyse Michael capital of Mississippis personality with the application of Allports and Murrays personality theories. The thesis focuses on Michael Jackson as an individual and how his character and personality are uniform in several aspects to the character and personality of the picaro the antihero of picaresque novels. It is essential to study in detail the theories of both the psychologists in order to successfully use them as a tool to analyse the personalities of Michael Jackson and the picaro.Gord on Willard Allport (1897 1967) was a premier American psychologist who is often called the father of Personality theory. He is considered to be the founder of personality psychology as he was one of the first psychologists to have think extensively on the study of personality. He was the first psychologist who gave thorough thought to the imagination of traits in a person. He true a theory called the trait theory and opined that the trait was the most appropriate way of describing and study personality.Allport approached psychology and the issue of personality in a unmatched way. Allport revolutionized the world of psychology by moving the study of the personality into the mainstream of psychology. His theories are passive debated, and he is considered one of the most controversial psychologists of our time. (Hall and Lindzey 260) Allports opinions differed from other psychologists. He believed in studying healthy and mature individuals. He matte the study of animals and ps ychoneurotic raft could not deuce-ace to conclusions pertinent to normally functioning matures. (Becoming 18)Secondly, Allport viewed every human being as unique. Therefore, he believed in studying an individual personality as opposed to studying mass in reciprocal. He criticized scientists for their avoidance of the individual and their prevalent theory that individualisation can only be studied by history, art or biography and not by cognizance. He believed that nomothetic methods ( public and popular) should be discouraged and idiographic methods (individual) essential be encouraged.If we accept this dogma concerning the scope and limitations of science we shall have to countermand the person as a person. further we are not yet discouraged. That the individual is a system of patterned uniqueness is a fact. That science likes globals and not particular(a)s is also a fact. Yet personality itself is a universal phenomenon though it is found only in individual forms. Sin ce it is a universal phenomenon science must(prenominal)iness study it unless it cannot study it correctly unless it looks into the individuality of patterning Such is the dilemma. ( precedent and appendage 9)Allport stated that there is no correct or incorrect definition of personality, rather all definitions are full of pitfalls. ( kind and crop 28) He assignd personality as a dynamic governing within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.(Personality 48) Because this definition reflects some unique phrasing and word choices, Allports own explanations of terminology and phrasing are presented. participating OrganizationThe personality is constantly changing, and any definition of personality must acknowledge this shift. However, this diverseness does not occur in the normal crowing in a haphazard fashion rather, it occurs within the pass overaries of an organization. (Allport, Personality 48) This smorg asbord occurs in a self -regulating and motivating fashion. This definition of organized change implies the compriseence of a reciprocal mathematical operation of disorganization, especially in those personalities marked by progressive disintegration. (Allport, course and Growth 28)PsychophysicalThis term serves as a reminder that personality is neither exclusively physical nor mental. Instead, the organization of the personality fuses the physical and mental in some inextricable unity. (Allport, Personality 48)SystemsA system is a complex of elements in mutual interaction. The personality is sedate of some systems. A employment, sentiment, trait, concept, or style of behaving are all systems and are latent in the personality even when they are not active. Systems are our potential for drill. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 28-29)DeterminePersonality is something, and it does something. Personality is active. Allport contended that the latent psychophysical systems, when called into action, either motivate or direct a specific activity or thought. (Pattern and Growth 29) Personality is not like with behaviour or activity personality is merely the impression that this activity makes on others. It is what lies female genitals specific acts and within the individual. (Allport, Personality 48) All systems that comprise a single personality are the as sure tendencies. They exert a direct cultivate on the adjusting and expressive acts which make up the personality. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 29) singularityAll behaviour and thought are characteristic of the person and are unique to that person. Allport hold the use of this term, and the use up to define it, appeared redundant in a definition whose very meaning stressed individuality and uniqueness. He used it, though, to drive the point home. (Pattern and Growth 29)Behaviour and ThoughtAllport used these cardinal terms to cover anything whatsoever an individual might do. A persons main activity, accordi ng to Allport, is to adjust to the environment, but he felt it foolish to define personality only in terms of adjustment. He acknowledged the individual also reflects on the environment, strives to master it, and sometimes succeeds in this subordination of the environment. Thought as well as behaviour, then, make for both choice and growth. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 29) The following diagram depicts a comprehensive view of personality.Allport summarized his own definition of personalityMy own definition of personality is essentialist. Personality is what a person really is, regardless of the way other people perceive his qualities or the methods by which we study them. Our perceptions and our methods whitethorn be in error, just as an astronomer may fall short in studying the constitution of a star. But the star is still there, a challenging object for study. My definition does not, of course, deny that a person is protean over time or that his behaviour may change from situa tion to situation. It says simply that the person has an internal structure and range of characteristics (variable, to be sure, but ascertainable), and it is this structure that we hope to study. (Pattern and Growth 35)The discussion in detail of Allports definition of personality and his approach towards both, personality and psychology, leads us to his theory of traits. According to Allport a trait isa generalized and focalized neuropsychic system (peculiar to the individual), with the strength to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to tutor and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour. (Personality 295)He believed that a trait exists within a person and is there even when a person is alone and away from the observation of others. Secondly, he believed that traits define behaviour and make it consistent. Traits, we must note from the outset, are not per se observables. Nor are they real entities. You will never be able to seat them u nder a microscope. They are descriptive schemas that are the product of human background and imagination. They serve a heuristic purpose, as do all other constructs about the world in which we live namely, they give a conceptual order to our world and make it more comprehensible than it would be without them. That Allport (1937 1961), for deterrent example, stipulates that traits or personality for that matter have neuropsychic referents does not turn them into things (reify them so to speak). (Dumont 149)Allport clearly distinguished traits form types.Unlike traits types invariably have a biosocial reference. A man can be said to have a trait but he cannot be said to have a type. Rather he fits a type.types exist not in people or in nature, but rather in the eye of the observer. pillowcase includes more than is in the individual. Traits, on the contrary, are considered wholly within the field of the individual. The crux of the distinction is that in a type the reference poi nt is invariably some attribute, or cluster of corresponding attributes abstracted from various personalities. (Personality 295-296)Yet Allport was aware of the limitations involved in the study of traits generalities of name calling variance of emotions the ability to observe only the act, which is the result of the trait rather than the trait itself. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 333-334) Even with the limitations involved in trait research, Allport believed them to be one of the strongest means for personality study.He did not blindly study personality traits, but tried to take into account all of the variables, for exampleNo trait theory can be sound unless it leads for, and accounts for, the variant of a persons conduct. Pressures from the surrounding environment, the companions he is with, and the counter current in the person himself may delay, augment, distort, or inhibit completely the conduct that we would normally depend to issue from a persons traits. . . . All this is true yet in a persons stream of activity there is, besides a variable portion, overly a constant portion and it is this constant portion we seek to exhibit with the concept of trait. (Pattern and Growth 333)Allport draws a distinction between common traits and individual traits. A common trait identifies a trait which to some consummation is reflected in many personalities. An individual trait, however, or personal disposition (as Allport came to call them), is peculiar to the individual. He points out that all traits are unique and no one trait can be found in more than one person. But at the same time for the science of personality and psychology to function properly it is important to compare individuals. Allport states that for all their final differences, normal persons within a given culture-area tend to develop a limited number of roughly comparable modes of adjustment. The original endowment of most human beings, their stages of growth, and the demands of their parti cular society, are sufficiently standard and comparable to lead to some basic modes of adjustment that from individual to individual are more or less the same.(Pattern and Growth 298)Common traits are developed, according to Allport, because the human nature develops similar modes of adjusting to a similar environment, though varying horizontal surfaces of individualism still exist (Pattern and Growth 349). Allport felt common traits were less important to the individual personality because they rattling reflect the social mores developed through socialization, rather than personal choices. Therefore, common traits are constantly changing according to the growth, development, and fads of a particular society. Allport felt the very nature of the common trait made it less influential to the individual. Individual traits, on the other hand, have the capacity to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic behaviour. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 373).However, Allport felt that for a complete and thorough study of personality both common and individual traits are essential individual and common trait concepts are complementary in the study of personality. What is unique and what is universal both need to be explored. (Personality 299)Allport described traits by names. He identify approximately xviii thousand words in the English language which named distinctive forms of personal behaviour. Though incomplete, Allport believed that, this list of words had an infinite scope. Allport categorized the 18,000 trait names 30% have an evaluative flavour 25% are comparative 25% refer to temporary states of mind, mood, emotion, or activity, and 25% are figurative (Pattern and Growth 354-355).Allport was dissatisfied with the limitations of verbal tags. He recognized the weaknesses found in the subjective and limited nature of labellingA trait of personality may or may not coincide with some well-defined, conventional social concept. . . It would be ideal if we could . . . find our traits first and then name them. But honesty, loyalty, neatness and tact, though encrusted with social significance, may likewise represent true traits of personality. The danger is that, in devising scales for their measurement, we may be bound by the conventional meanings and thus be led away from the distinct integration as it exists in a given individual. Where possible, it would be well for us to find our traits first and then seek devaluated terms with which to restrict our discoveries. (Becoming 135)Allport understood that no single act is the product of only one trait, and a trait is only one factor in determining an act. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 334 and 360) This recognition of the complexity of the human nature led Allport to the conclusion that it is ridiculous to try to reduce human nature to a single element simply for the sake of explanationWe view personality in the only way it can be intelligibly viewedas a network of organization, co mposed of systems within systems, some systems of small magnitude and passably peripheral to the interchange or propriate structure, other systems of wider scope at the hollow of the total edifice some easy to set into action, others more asleep(predicate) some so culturally conforming that they can readily be viewed as common others definitely idiosyncratic. But in the last analysis this network-complying billions and billions of nerve cells, fashioned by a one-time heredity and by environmental experiences never duplicated-is ultimately unique. (Pattern and Growth 360)Although there is a certain degree of consistency found within the personality, the personality is not completely predictable. The mutual exclusiveness of dispositions could be due to a specific situation, or to the actual domain of opposite dispositions within an individual (Allport, Becoming 135). Allport felt that distant behaviour is often not contradictory at all, but a contrasting stylistic demonstration of the same personal disposition. What must be identified is the deepest disposition that is operating within an individualTake the case of Dr. D., always neat about his person and desk, punctilious about lecture notes, outlines, and files his personal possessions are not only in order but carefully kept under lock and key. Dr. D is also in kick of the departmental program library. In this duty he is careless he leaves the library door unlocked, and books are lost it does not bother him that dust accumulates. Does this contradiction in terms in behaviour mean that D lacks personal dispositions? Not at all. He has two opposed stylistic dispositions, one of orderliness and one of disorderliness. Different situations arouse different dispositions. Pursuing the case further, the duality is at least partly explicateed by the fact that D has one key (motivational) disposition from which these contrasting styles proceed. The outstanding fact about his personality is that he is a self -centred egotist who never acts for other peoples interests, but always for his own. This primal self -centeredness (for which there is abundant evidence) demands orderliness for himself, but not for others. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 363)A particular trait can be identified and determined in a particular person only if the behaviour it characterises occurs repeatedly in by and large similar situations. According to AllportA specific act is always the product of many determinants, not only of lasting sets, but of momentary pressures in the person and in the situation. It is only the repeated occurrence of acts having the same significance (equivalence of response) following upon a definable range of stimuli having the same personal significance (equivalence of stimuli) that makes necessary the evidence of traits and personal dispositions. (Pattern and Growth 374)Allport put forward his classic doctrine of traitsA trait has more than nominal world.A trait is more than a general ized fit out.A trait is dynamic, or at least determinative.The existence of a trait may be established empirically or at least statistically.Traits are only relatively independent of separately other.A trait of personality, psychologically considered, is not the same as a moral quality.Acts, and even garments, that are inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the nonexistence of the trait.A trait may be viewed either in the slatternly of the personality which contains it, or in the light of its distribution in the population at large. (What is a Trait 368)Allport cogitate that some traits have more influence on an individual than other traits. He categorized these traits into three levels underlying traits, Central traits and tributary traits.Cardinal TraitsA cardinal trait is so pervasive and outstanding in any given individual that almost every act can be traced to its influence and almost every aspect of a persons smell is touched by it. A person is so dominated by the cardinal trait that it can rarely be hidden from others. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365) Such a trait is so dominant in a person that the person comes to be known for that trait. It gos almost synonymous to his personality. Examples of cardinal traits can be narcissist and Casanova. A cardinal trait is considered to be rare and tends to develop in an individual at a later stage in his life. A person does not unavoidably have only one cardinal trait, and this trait may change as a person matures and changes. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365)Central TraitsA central trait is less dominant as compared to a cardinal trait. Central traits form the foundation of an individuals personality. Central traits are easily detect characteristics within a person, traits that all people have a certain number of, five to ten on an average according to Allport. (Schultz 201)Secondary TraitsOn a less conspicuous level of influence are secondary dispositions. These traits are less generalized and le ss consistent than central dispositions. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 365) They might reflect something only a best friend would know. (Schultz 201).Allport did not set down any particular number of dispositions an individual might possess.How many dispositions has a person is a most audacious question, and can be answered in only a earlier and speculative way. For many reasons the question is audacious Behaviour is in unceasing flow dispositions never express themselves singly people manifest contradictory dispositions in contradictory situations furthermore, diagnostic methods are too ill developed to enable us to discover the answer. (Pattern and Growth 366)Allports trait theory can be summed up through the following diagram.Habits and attitudes are often low with traits because of their similarities. Allport clearly defined functions and attitudes to avoid all confusion. According to Allport, a habit can function as a trait, but a trait is not always a habit. Habits are infl exible and specific in response to specific stimuli traits are more generalized and variable in expression. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 346) A number of habits may be amalgamate together to develop a trait however, habits do not integrate automatically into traits. They do so when the person has some general concept or self image which leads to the fusion of the habit into a trait. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 346) Allport cites the example of a child brushing his teeth.A spring chicken child may be regarded as forming a specific habit when he learns (with difficulty) to brush his teeth night and morning. For some years this habit may stand alone, aroused only by appropriate commands or by the appropriate environmental situation. With the passing of years, however, brushing teeth becomes not only automatic (as is the way of habits) but likewise firmly interweave into a much wider system of habits, viz., a trait of personal cleanliness. . . . The adult is uncomfortable if he omit s brushing the teeth from his daily schedule, not only because a single habit is frustrated, but because the omission violates a general demand for cleanliness. (Allport, Personality 292)Allport explained that a trait is a fusion of habit and endowment rather than a colligation or chain of habits alone. (Personality 293) The translation of habit to trait is simply when the motivation shifts from simple conditioned responses to a sheer liking of the activity as motivation. Then trait has become autonomous. (Allport, Personality 293)Allport distinguishes between a trait and an attitude in two ways. First, an attitude always has an object of reference whereas, a trait does not direct itself specifically toward something. Second, an attitude is usually favourable or unfavourable, for or against. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 347) It involves a judgement or evaluation (pro or con), which a trait does not. (Schultz 200) motiveAccording to Allport, the pivot of the theory of personality is the analysis of the nature of motivation. He defined motivation as any internal condition in a person that induces action or thought. (Pattern and Growth 196) Allport also believed a theory of motivation should meet quad requirements contemporaneity, pluralistic, cognitive process, and concrete uniqueness. (Schultz 201)ContemporaneityA theory of motivation must acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives. (Pattern and Growth 220) In other words, the importance of the present should be stressed Motives leading to activity, it may be argued, are always operative at the time the activity takes place. Allport added, That which drives, drives now. (The Use of Personal 80) Allport was aware, however, that in complex adult motives the past is, to some degree, alive in the present. He considered it, however, the task of the psychologist to discover how much of the past is fire and how much of it is ashes. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 219) To think that the motives of mankind are essentiall y unchanged from family until death seemed to Allport inadequate at best. (Pattern and Growth 203) That which once motivated, does not ineluctably motivate always. It is important to realize the past is only important if it exists as a present or current motivating force, or is dynamically active in the present. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 220)More precisely stated, it is the scanty structure that has this dynamic power. A finished structure is static but a growing structure, tending toward a given direction of closure, has the capacity to subsidiate the guide conduct in conformity with its movement. (Allport, Becoming 91)PluralisticAllport believed that a theory of motivation must have room for multiple motives. Motivation cannot be reduced to one general phase or drive.Some motives are transient, some recurring some are momentary, others persistent some unconscious, others conscious some opportunistic, others propriate some tension-reducing, others tension-maintaining. Motives are so diverse in type that we find it difficult to discover the common denominator. About all we can say is that a persons motives include all that he is try (consciously or unconsciously, reflexly or deliberately) to do. (Pattern and Growth 221)Simplification does not explain motivation. Neither does reducing its strands to the simplified model of the machine, the animal, the child, or the pathological. (Pattern and Growth 222) A theory of motivation should allow that there may be some truth in each theory. (Pattern and Growth 221)Cognitive ProcessA theory of motivation must acknowledge the importance of the cognitive processes e.g. cooking and intention. (Allport, Pattern and Growth 222) Allports requirement of cognitive process gives emphasis to the individuals conscious plans and intentions. These conscious intentions represent, above all else, the individuals primary mode of addressing the afterlife. (Becoming 89) Thus, cognitive process stresses the importance of the fut ure in the motivating process of the personality.Alport believed that all individuals possess the power of thought and it is this thought process which leads them to form decisions. Hence, an individuals intent should be central to understanding his personality.Allport defined intention as what an individual is act to do, and he included several features of motivation derived from the concept of intentionThe cognitive and emotive processes in personality become fused into an integral urge.The intention, like all motivation, exists in the present, but has strong future orientation. Use of the concept helps us to trace the course of motivation as lives are actually livedinto the future and not, as most theories do, backward into the past. It tells us what sort of future a person is trying to bring about and this is the most important question we can ask about any mortal.The term has a flavour of tension maintained and thus reflects the true condition of all long range motives.When we identify major intentions in a life we have a device for holding subsidiary trends in perspective. (Pattern and Growth 223).Allport believed the present should be explained more in terms of the future, not the past. It is more important to identify what a person intends to do and how they are directly acting out this intention, than to look toward the past of an individuals childhood or development.regrettably the concept of intention is not prominent in current psychology. The reason is that it connotes purpose, the efficacy of conscious planning, and a pull that mans image of the future exerts on his present conduct. . . . the more favoured physicalistic conception would say that he is pushed by his motives (not pulled by his intentions). Many psychologists would say that drives take entire care of what we here call intention. Yet drives as such are blind. They do not allow for organization and direction by cognitive attitudes, by foresight, by cortical control. (Allport, Patter n and Growth 224)

Archaeology And Patterns Of Trade Iron Age Europe History Essay

Archaeology And Patterns Of get by put right age europium History EssayIn the crusade fester most European communities would need been linked together to round degree and this fuel be seen as a continuation of intercommunicate established during the Bronze Age (Piggott 1965 174). Peaceful sh ar mingled with these communities, for goods that were all a basic necessity or possibly scarcely desirable, would keep for a number of reasons, none of them mutually exclusive, such(prenominal) as exploitation, cross-cultural interchange or mutually beneficial mass meeting (Woolf 1993 211). When considering what archaeology can tell us ab come forward this trading, according to Collis (1984 15), in that location is a common impudence that it divides into the three spatial aims of long distance, inter- theatrical roleal and local anaesthetic alternate However, this specialisation may only be a modern construct that would non squander been recognised by push Age commun ities (Wells 2008 356-8). This essay lead lend oneself some of the material culture getable from burials, hoards and settlements to examine each pattern in turn looking at the objects traded, how trade was organised, why and who was conglomerate in an attempt to assess whether or not the archaeologic gestate sup ways this largely economic model.Before any assessment can be under taken it is important to define the terms Trade and contract Age as they are used in this essay. Trade is used here to follow any transaction intended to acquire goods not available in the local env compressment, which are either required for basic physical postu later(a) or are desirable, through purchase, change or exchange for some other goods (Wells 2008 357). The touch on of goods or gift exchange was in any case in public presentation at this prison term and this term is used to describe the distri barelyion of goods as a cordial fundamental interaction between communities aimed at inc reasing wealth, prestigiousness or status (Wells 2008 356-7). From the available attest it is not always viable to tell the difference between these twain systems and in fact Iron Age communities may not have differentiated so the two interactions can be interpreted as forming a continuum with traded goods being passed out from centres of trade to the rural periphery via exchange (Wells 2008 358).The Iron Age was widespread across Central Europe by the 7th century BC and lasted until the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC. Traditionally It is dissever into two phases, the Early Iron Age from 750-450BC, which is likewise termed Hallstatt after the geek site in Austria, and the Late Iron Age from 450-50BC as well cognize as La Tene from the type site in Switzerland (Darvill 2008 215). This essay will use Early or Late Iron Age when referring to time periods, Hallstatt or La Tene when referring to artefact styles.Long distance trade is the easiest to key out in the archaeo logical record through the identification of foreign or exotic goods (Collis 1984 15-16). In the Early Iron Age trade was affect by the metal using state societies of the Mediterranean , principally Greece and Etruria , as they sought sources of the basic tender materials like tin, copper, iron and salt to fuel their growing economies (Collis 1984 15). Apart from Baltic amber and Mediterranean coral Europe had a plentiful supply of these basic raw materials locally available so the main import was in manufactured goods like the bean plant pottery, Greek amphorae and Etruscan dye vessels erect at the Vix grave on Mont Lassois in France and the Heuneburg in Ger many another(prenominal). These demonstrate trade as opposed to a companionable bond but are also indicative of think between the selecteds of Western Europe and the Mediterranean for the supply of feasting equipment and wine (Wells 1995 231). The strawman of elaborate carve with rich assemblages of local products en graft in condition with imported objects such as those found at Durrnberg in Austria which contained scratch vessels from Italy, sword handles from Africa and vessels from Slovenia or grave 6 at Hohmichele on the Heuneburg , which contained silk framework from the far east, are indicative of long distance trade in prestige or luxury goods sort of than social interaction (Wells 2008 363).Colonies, such as Marseille founded by the Phocaeans in 600BC, were established by the Mediterranean societies to rotate up new trading markets (Milisauskas 1978 270) as can be attest by the trade in wine and luxury items up the Rhone valley to central Europe (Greene 1990 116), although not all Mediterranean drinking sky found in central Europe came via this route. Items such as the beaker flagons found in the Vix grave may have come via alpine routes from the Etruscan controlled Po valley (Cunliffe 1999 62). Correspondingly the Early Iron Age saw the switch off of European towns like the Heu neburg and Mont Lassois, with large populations and high levels of production and trade, which acted as shopping centre centres in local areas importing foodstuffs and raw materials from rural periphery for inter-regional exchange and distributing finished goods locally (Wells 1980 46-47). In the Late Iron Age these towns were deputized by oppida like Manching in Bavaria and Bibracte in France which fulfilled a similar role. These oppida were also used as ports of trade and may have been established to draw and quarter and increase trade rather than to restrict or control it (Woolf 1993 211). by-line the foundation of the colonies feasting and drinking artefacts from Greek and Etruscan workshops appear in carve of the European aristocracy indicating the presence of rise established trading links between central Europe and the Mediterranean (Cunliffe 2010 462). It could in that locationfore be imitation that that this selected aristocracy were in control of trade however the re is certainty at the Heuneburg and Narbo for the presence of a merchant class who forge wine and other Mediterranean goods to the native markets and exchange them for raw materials, slaves and, as their population grew, foodstuffs (Nash 1984 92-94). This trend continues into the Late Iron Age, when following a rest after Greece turns eastwards for trade in the 5th Century BC, radio link with the Mediterranean is renewed in 2nd century BC, and there is evidence from Magdalensberg near Salzburg for trade being in the hands of Italian merchants with no evidence for native traders (Collis 2002 31). Not all long distance trade was in luxury or prestige goods. The potential for interchange of rituals, ideas, technologies or level(p) specialists should not be ignored nor should the smaller, domestic or modus vivendi products like brooches and pins. It may be that the European elite in the towns and oppida acted as a core group for the redistribution of these commodities in their lo cal area or inter-regionally as the distribution of artefacts made from a variety of raw materials and involving the use of many technologies can be taken as indicating a defined social hierarchy within a settled society (Phillips 1980 266).Inter-regional trade, or rather at this level exchange, can be described as the purport of goods between communities that share cultural similarities (Collis 1984 15-16). For example, in the Late Iron Age objects found in graves from France, Austria and Bohemia and ornamented in the La Tene style would expect to refer a social link between regional elites who express their cultural similarity and identity through material culture (Wells 2008 363). The objects change may be similar in form to those produced in the local environment and this exchange is traditionally seen as a social rather than economic regulart. To this end there is no merchant class mixed in the transaction as it is based on family and kin relationships (Collis 1984 15-16) . Occurring to a greater extent in the Early rather than the Late Iron Age it is characterized by gift exchange between the male monarchful members of peer societies possibly representing not only trade but also tribute, ransom, dowry payments or even wedding gifts (Wells 1995 239). This may also represent the practice of reciprocity whereby goods were disposed(p) as a social interaction between elite members of society, not in the expectation of immediate exchange, but rather as a long term investment whereby reciprocation was made by the cooking of services, labour, goods or even trading treaties (Nash 1984 93-4).Stretching Europe slightly to embroil south-west Britain will allow the trade between Alet in France and Hengistbury brainpower to be used as a case study. The discovery of an iron anchor and chain dating from the 1st century BC at Bulbury in Dorset can be interpreted as providing evidence for oceanic trade between continental Europe and Britain (Cunliffe 2010 480). Hengistbury Head was a designated port of trade used by the local elite to control the spring of goods both into and out of Britain whilst utilizing the foreign trade relationship to increase their value over their regional periphery (Nash 1984 93). Goods such as iron from the Hengistbury area, non-ferrous metals from the Mendips and Kimmeridge shale were transfer with Alet, via a short haul sea crossing to the Channel Islands and and then to the port of Reginca, for Mediterranean pottery, prestige finished goods and wine (Languet 1984 73). This is certify by the presence of Dressel 1A amphorae, glass and fine ware pottery from Northern Italy at Hengistbury Head and changes in the local manufacture of ceramics, bronze and iron artefacts that are indicative of inter-regional exchange of ideas and technologies (Cunliffe 1984 8). Although this short range, cross-channel contact was probably based on a recurring requirement between the respective core communities it could also be interpreted as a core-periphery pattern of trade whereby Continental Europe is the core supplying finished goods and south-west Britain is the periphery providing raw materials in exchange (Nash 1984 92). There is evidence from the vast amounts of Armorican pottery at Hengistbury Head that the Armoricans themselves may have lived there, at least for part of the year, and acted as continental agents liaising with the local communities for the exchange of goods (Cunliffe 2010 479). The hoard from Llyn Fawr in Wales could provide evidence of this interaction as it contains Hallstatt C type artefacts ,such as iron swords and bronze discs for harness ornamentation, that are similar to types found in Belgium and southern Germany and could have been shipped via Alet to Hengistbury Head before being exchanged locally (Cunliffe 2010 456). Thus a case can be made for regarding Hengistbury Head as the core for its immediate environment with the local rural communities as the periphery.Local tr ade is probably the least studied of all the patterns of trade as there is a traditional assumption that the mechanisms used are already well understood (Collis 1984 15). The interaction between local communities was possibly based on reciprocity with the exchange of finished goods for services, labour or raw materials. The oppida of the late Iron Age, like Manching and Bibracte, and the towns of the Early Iron Age, like Mont Lassois and the Heuneburg, were not just trading centres but were also manufacturing and production sites creating their own finished goods which is evidenced by graves containing bronze objects, pottery and glass beads that mull over local patterns of trade. These manufactured goods may have formed part of a core-periphery trade with smaller local communities for food and forestry products (Wells 1995 236). Increases in rural production, which created a local self sufficiency and provided a greater surplus for trade, engendered the conditions that allowed for a large scale social organisation with elaborate hierarchies. The emergent elite in these hierarchies were able to engage in local trade for a wide range of goods which could also be used to foster a regular contact with other regional elites for exchange of commodities, technologies and ideas (James and Rigby 1997 76-7). Although they are sort out as elites it is possible that individuals acted as centres for trade and the rich burials in which we go up lavish prestige and luxury goods, such as the Etruscan beaked flagons found in the middle Rhine area of Europe and dated to the Late Iron Age (Cunliffe 1999 63), indicate wealth but maybe not elite status (Collis 1984 16). After all not all trade was in luxury or prestige goods and the presence of non-elite objects like decorative pins and brooches, such as the bronze fibulae found in the female grave at Vix (Wells 2008 364), in a local area can be taken as representative of local trade or exchange networks. These socio-economic systems also saw elite leaders give gifts of lesser value to those lour down the hierarchy in order to retain status and power (Cunliffe 2999 61). The spread of items like the long slashing Grundelingen swords can be explained by simple local exchange mechanisms providing examples that are then copied (Cunliffe 2010 449) and at Alb-Salem in Wrttemberg there have been found ceramics of a particular size of it and decoration distributed across an area that could be walked in a twenty-four hours (Wells 2008 361). In the late Iron Age coin evidence appears to indicate that specialist workers, who mass produce goods and administer their own commercial aspects of trade, replace control by elites, initially in their local area but eventually along the whole commodity supply chain (Wells 1995 240-1). This is advertise evidenced by the appearance of mass produced Roman wares in graves where they replace unique foreign imports and is paralleled by a diminution in the role played by elites and social networks as they are superseded by professional merchants in a globalised economic market (Wells 1995 240-2).The available archaeological evidence is open to ambiguous interpretation however this essay has argued that it would appear to support the spatial model of long distance, inter-regional and local patterns of trade even though this is a modern economic construct. These patterns should not be seen as being mutually exclusive but rather as strands in a complex system of exchange mechanisms that reflect social interaction between communities, that have a symbolic as well as an economic dimension whilst moving commodities, as well as ideas and technologies, bi-directionally more or less Europe and the Mediterranean (Renfrew 1993 214). It should also be borne in mind that intangibles such as slaves, foodstuffs, hides and hunting dogs will leave no trace in the archaeological record even though they were subject to the same trade and exchange systems (Cunliffe 1984 4) . However, without the benefit of written sources to enhance our understanding, what the evidence cannot prove is how the Iron Age communities themselves regarded trade. It is a possibility that they did not differentiate by region or distance but instead regarded all trade as local and based on simple exchange systems no point what the commodity or how far it had travelled (Wells 2008 358). As the Iron Age came to a close, with low value coinage being adopted and capital of Italy becoming predominant in Europe and the Mediterranean, there was a go away to a globalised, impersonal, commodity market that removed the need for a differentiation in trading patterns. The emergence of standardised weights, measures and prices rendered redundant the requirement for barter and exchange systems with a professional Italian merchant class positive trade and replacing local elites who were subsumed into the Roman provincial government process (Collis 2002 30).

Post Modernism To Sociological Understanding Sociology Essay

Post Modernism To Sociological Understanding Sociology Essay classic contri exclusivelyions to sociological thinking rough shoesmodernism emerged from several academics, some of whom considered themselves postmodernistists and opposites who did not. This essay ordain discuss the origins of postmodernism and its views and focus primarily on the processs of Jean-Franois Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard and postgeomorphologicist Michel Foucault. In addition to this, criticisms of their work and their influences within mixer theory shall be analysed.Postmodernism developed as a reaction to the inadequacies of the eighteenth century Enlightenment motion which held views approximately scientific incontrovertibility, the search for absolute virtue, ultimate meaning and the personality of strongity using lucidity. Postmodernists ar anti-essentialist and consider that an absolute scientific truth has been discredited as truths atomic number 18 multiple and always changing. The belie f is that bulk no longer rely on science. In support of this, Fulcher Scott (2003) consider that in 1962, Thomas Kuhn pointed that science creates its facts instead of providing given facts. He argued that scientists collaborated with other look intoers who shargond especial(a) concepts and methods in common to bring virtually outlastent knowledge Kuhn claims this tells scientists what to find in experiments and help explain observations that do not match their preconceived ideas. This view was developed further by Lyotard, which shall be discussed in more detail (Haralambos Holborn, 2004). It is argued that the postmodern society is associated with pluralism, difference, uncertainty and cultural relativism as in that location is a vast choice of interpretations of the world ring humans. Moreover, individualism reigns and hoi polloi find it difficult to form a real identity reservation them anxious and insecure (Jones et al. 2011, Giddens 2006, Bilton et al.2002, Conn olly 2013, Boyne Rattansi, 1990). Therefore, postmodernists stress for the hire for local knowledge produced out of particular locations (Macionis Plummer, 2nd edn).Jean- Francois Lyotard(1995) stated I define postmodern as incredulity toward metanarratives. This incredulity is undoubtedly a product of progress in the sciences. This rejection of metanarratives is related to the postmodernist idea that on that point is no accessible theory that can stick out absolute sociological knowledge. Meta-narratives which argon big stories that seek to find the objective truth about society, get outd by the likes of Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx who attempt to explain the social world in its aggregate have been abandoned, as suggested by Lyotard. This involves scepticism towards the idea of history pitiful in the direction of progress, freedom and reason (Beyer 1992, Connolly 2013, Ritzer,).Lyotard uses the concept of address- games. He argues that language is problematic as it does no t provide a map for candor. With positivism however, language is considered to be a natural outlet to describe observations but postmodernists reject this flightiness as there are too umteen meanings for one word which are in constant flux. Lyotard argues that the Enlightenment brought about scientific denotative games whereby scientific statements are scrutinised by other scientists and rational argument is used to establish whether a statement should be accepted or rejected. The belief is that science can help humans to pass away more self-conscious. However, Lyotard rejects this view and argues that nowadays statements are judged not by whether they are true or not, but whether they are useful and efficient or not (Connolly 2013, Haralambos Holborn, 2004).On the other hand, Giddens (2006) argues that Jean Baudrillard sees society as characterised by simulations and hyper reality. The creative activity of simulacra attempt to reproduce reality and hype reality is a descript ion of the social world in which simulations and simulacra become real and predominate. inn is dominated by media, technology and information which have created an empty world. Appignanesi et al. (2004) suggest that Baudrillard argues that this has reversed Marxs theory that economic forces shape society. Instead, society is influenced by a constant flux of meaningless signs and images. Meaning is now created by the issue of images such(prenominal) as in TV programmes, pop music and so forth. Individuals now respond to media images rather than to real people or places. These provide impermanent multiples of reality to consume (Haralambos Holborn, 2004, Kirby 2000, Agger, 1991 and Giddens 2009). Jones et al. (2011) argue that this breakdown amid reality and knowledge is part of peoples knowledge in the postmodern world as suggested by Baudrillard. He calls this the dissolution of life into TV (cited in Giddens, 2006 115). In addition he states, TV watches us, TV alienates us, TV manipulates us, and TV informs us (Haralambos Holborn, 2004, p. 976). Baudrillard is pessimistic about the future and does not believe in socialism as suggested by Marx. He views the masses as being gradually more passive. consequently, life is led toward nihilism (Ritzer, 2008). In contrast, Lyotard is optimistic about these new changes. Unfortunately, Baudrillards work has been criticised for being highly abstract and relies upon examples to illustrate arguments (Haralambos Holborn, 2004).Alternatively, associated with post structuralism is Michel Foucault who incorporated a variety of theoretical insights, particularly from Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche. deal Nietzsche, he was particularly interested in the relationship between military group and knowledge. Foucault pays particular attention to the techniques that are developed from scientific knowledge and how they are used by various institutions to exert power over people via surveillance, enforcement and discipline . His work is known as Foucaults archaeology where he sets about making sense of the familiar by looking into the past. He sees history sorrowful from one system of domination based on knowledge to another. He suggests that there is no history but a multiple, overlapping and interactive series of legitimate vs. excluded histories. One example he suggests is that there are increases in the ability of the sane and their agents such as psychologists to oppress and restrict the mad, who initially used to be viewed to possess a gift (Ritzer 2008, marsh et al. 2009, Giddens, 2006, Macionis Plummer 2002, Jones et al. 2011, Appignanesi et al. 2004). This means that what counts as true, morally right is relative to a particular time, place and power struggle truth changes according to whoever is powerful sufficient to define it (Jones et al. 2011). Foucault developed the concept of discourse by drawing upon the work of Claude Levi-Strauss who argued that language originates in the uncon scious human mind. Furthermore, culture is also the creation of the same unconscious thought processes. Culture is therefore like language. Thus there is nothing in social life that is a solvent of the creation of the imaginative mind. Human beings are not the authors of their life stories as these are written for them in language and in culture which exist independently of individuals. Therefore social reality is defined by structural influences as a system of language external to the actor. This link between thought, language, knowledge and action Foucault summarizes with the phrase discursive practises (Jones et al, 2011).Fulcher and Scott (2003) argue that Foucault and Lyotards works are often linked as they both reject the idea that there are constraining structures in social life and recognise atomization and diversity in cultural and social life. Foucaults writings have been prestigious in furthering research into power and knowledge across the social sciences (Ritzer, 2008 ). His court to analysing the relationship between truths, meaning and power has shaped the theoretical and research agendas of the social sciences Jones et al. (2011) (p. 128). Moreover, Agger argued that Foucault has made direct empirical contributions to social sciences where he has examine the discourse/practices of prisons (1977) and sexuality (1978). This research supports his argument.Overall, postmodernism is criticized for being untestable, superficial, fragmented, relativistic, abstract and lacking depth. A consequence of this is that people are otiose to make sense of an more and more complex society. In addition to this, Giddens (1990 cited in Bilton et al. (2002) argues that the postmodernist account of coeval society is contradictory because Lyotard and Baudrillards arguments are based on uncertainty. Furthermore, Giddens criticises postmodernist approaches for rejecting the notion that humans are creative agents with an active part in shaping their social worlds. The view that an absolute break with past has occurred, as suggested by Baudrillard, has been solidly rejected by most sociologists, as he was unable to identify the point of separation between modernity and postmodernity or provide a clear account of the move into postmodern society. This inadequacy whitethorn have led sceptical sociologists like Giddens (1991) and Beck (1999) to go for terms such as late modernity to describe the social changes representative of contemporaneous society. Other criticisms by Greg Philo and David Miller suggest postmodernisms inability to account for social causation and the implication of factors such as the economy. Instead, the focus was only on surface portrayals of social change and missing the impact of deep social structures and growing inequalities which should not be ignored within sociology. Moreover, Philo and Miller argue that Baudrillard is said to pretend as though media images have no affiliation with reality at all. In their resear ch, they found that media audiences are well certified of the difference between reality and TV images. Philo and Miller abandon the postmodern impression that people are free to consume, do as they gaze and recreate identities as they please. They believe that people are still truly much inhibited and shaped by structures such as the capitalist economy. Postmodernists ignore that culture is shaped by the capitalist economy (Haralambos Holborn, 2004). some other criticism is brought forward by Jrgen Habermas who rejects the arguments of postmodernism notion that it is impossible to visit the social world rationally (Kirby, 2000).Nevertheless, the biggest contribution of postmodernism may lie in its methodological approach in denying both the search for absolute truths and an vehemence on finding the foundations of social occurrences. Instead, the postmodern approach suggests that the influence of potency and power need to be analysed in social theory, with the intention of concentrating on the uncovered social conditions of marginalised groups of society (Ritzer, 1997). Additionally, Agger argues that postmodern approaches have been effective critiques of positivism, interrogating interpreted for granted assumptions about science. However, postmodernism has not produced a concrete version to supervene upon positivist classical theories.In conclusion, Foucault has shown through his studies how knowledge was historically effected through his concept of discourses. Baudrillards analysis has been suggested to possibly enhance research in the social sciences on culture and the media (Agger, 1991) and Lyotard has shown how science is just one of the more discourses currently in power to control people.

The Importance Of Flood Inundation Modeling Environmental Sciences Essay

The Importance Of Flood Inundation mold Environmental Sciences EssayIn recent geezerhood, overgorge soaker specimens capture important increasingly in both(prenominal)(prenominal) pelter forecasting and modify tenderness as it provides the basis for the decision qualification of overindulge periliness management. Such stickers atomic number 18 mainly used to simulate gormandise mucklepour extent and sagacitys at different sections of the studied rising tide rivers. With their help, hydrologists be open to register and analyse the hydrologic systems of torrents well.This vagabond was initiated to further belowstand the flowage computer simulation Lisflood-FP global climate change and look for the coming(prenominal) intensity of hurriedness and temperature in Singapore. This leave alone allow engineers and other professionals to gauge the intensity of the future weather and conduct necessary works to pr issuance unwanted stock-stillt like flooding, fro m happening.BackgroundFloods argon the virtually destructive and recurring congenital haps all over the ball and a wide range of the world population and their property is at the risk of flooding. Thus, matchless of the crucial tasks in quantifying the damage estimation of the flood events is that determining the reli open prospicience of potentiality extent and piss depth of flood alluvium. In General, flood tell of issueage predications atomic number 18 used to service the decision-making in design urban homework in future. The principle of predication be derived from single realisation of numeric hydraulic flummoxs and applied on a forward- mould theoretical account (BatesandDe Roo, 2000). Despite warningization studies be underway to determine a single debate come in that optimises the shape fit to some ob go tod info, the confidence level of the predicted results amazes a major problem for decision makers.If the un plasteredty is considered in terms of input signal parameters (e.g. geographical selective information, hydrological data, fluid mechanics parameters, and boundary conditions), lone(prenominal) a small contribution of a typical issue might be regarded as certain or settled. The rest inevitably contains question that arises from the complexity of the system, lack of companionship or adult male-induced errors.In prelim studies, the scruple sources associated with the flood deluge fashion model bedevil been generalised into three categories, such as input data, hydraulics parameters and model structures (Bales and Wagner, 2009). Different hesitancy techniques (e.g. Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation) have been applied into the flood flood modelling to assess the uncertainty derived from whiz or multiple factors. However, limited studies have been further discussed the sensitivity of uncertainty sources like indenture coefficients. Moreover, the uncertainty outline methods applied in previou s studies relied healObjective and ScopeThis report is a write up on the research of Final Year Project, Flood Inundation border under stochastic uncertainty, had been carried on by the author for the last 10 months. The objective of this project is to systematically study and analyse the impact or effectuate of uncertainties associated with parameter of roughness coefficient in flood flood modeling, which is Lisflood-FP patterning. The predicted data screwing be used for the predication of future flood unravelage and damage estimation under risk analysis.In this report, the following preliminary study works will be covered.To review the one-dimensional (1-D) and monotone (2-D) hydraulic models for flood waterspout modeling, and to review the uncertainty sources associated with the flood inundation modeling surgical operation and the available uncertainty analysis methods.To conduct a Monte Carlo pretext to assess the propagation of uncertainty associated with roughness coefficients to the results of flood inundation modeling, in terms of water depths and inundation extent.The stage setting of this project includes a comprehensive literature review on flood inundation modeling process and recognition of the uncertainty effects from different sources. On the basis of literature review, the impact of the uncertainty of roughness coefficients is to be analysed a hypothetical study case. A conclusion will be do according to the preliminary data analysis and the ideas for futures work will be shaped.Methodology (GLUE)Annual reports of companies and information from public domain were reviewed extensively to pick out current GHG emissions reduction measures that be adopted by shipping companies. pedantic research papers and reports from agencies such as IMO, DNV and World Shipping Council (WSC) were examined to realise information on the potential and effectiveness of the measures and to identify critical issues. prime research was conducted thro ugh a both-pronged climax of surveys and interviews. Survey questions were designed in accordance to the objective of this study and the questionnaires were posted to container liner shipping companies, both with and without offices in Singapore. A small number of survey responses were anticipated and then the surveys were used to capture ground information. The interviews with governmental agency, classification societies and selected shipping companies serve as the second pillar of the primary information collection in this study.Report StructureFigure 1. Report structureThis report includes 5 chapters as shown in Error Reference source not found. A constitute of abbreviations and a glossary bealso included.This report consists of 6 chapters shown in Figure 1.1. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction of cathode-ray oscilloscope and scope of this study. Chapter 2 reviews the hydraulic models used for flood inundation modeling, the associated uncertainty sources and the uncertainty analysis methods. In Chapter 3, a 2-D hydraulic model is established for a study case adapted from a real world river system, where the model configuration and simulation results are introduced. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 discuss the effects of the uncertainty of the roughness coefficients on flood inundation modeling. In Chapter 6, a summary is made and the ideas for future studies are presented.CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWSThe information acquired through various literature reviews are discussed in this chapter to understand the background of floods and flood hazards, as well as the importance of flood inundation modeling. On the other hand, the 1-D/2-D hydrodynamic models for simulating both graduate(prenominal)way and flood plain liquefys were reviewed respectively. Subsequently, an overview of this chapter is provided.2.1 gate2.1.1 FloodsThroughout the long pitying history, floods are the to the highest degree frequently occurring instinctive hydrological phenomena, whic h consist of the futures such as water depth, prey velocity, and temporary and spatial dynamics. The regular- order floods occur every year at the expected stream flow range. It is beneficial to provide fertilise soil with nutrients, transport large quantities of down payment and deposit on the floodplain, and clean-up a river with any stagnant contaminates. However, some floods beat disasters due to the extreme events, which happen suddenly without any warning, such as draw, dam stag, storm surge and tsunami. As a result, their signifi quartert impacts act imponderable damage on human society and ecosystems, particularly in terms of demeanor loss and property damage.Flood nookie be delimitate as water body rises to run out the lands where is not unremarkably submerged with the perspective of flooding pluck advancement (Ward, 1978). This definition includes two main flood types, that is to say river floods and costal floods. River floods are mostly arising from likewis e or long-drawn-out rainfall, thus the river firing off flow exceeding the stream impart capacity and overtopping the banks and embankments. Especially in urban ambit, floods may also treat place at the sewage drains when the heavy storms water surcharged in and natural spring the drains. In addition, some natural or man-induced catastrophe could result in the water level is risen up suddenly and then overflow the river bank or dam.The reasons why the costal floods appear are commonly originated from the severe cyclonic weather systems in terms of a crew of high tides, elevated sea level and storm surges with large quivers. The inundation at coastal areas may results from the overflowing as the water level exceeds the crest level of defense, or from the overtopping as the waves run up and break over the defense, or defense structure failure itself (Reeve and Burgess, 1994). Furthermore, tsunami can pee long ocean waves due to the great earthquake and resulting in coastal flo ods.2.1.2 The flood hazardFlood hazard is defined that those floods generate pop-up threats to the life and properties of human beings at the flood-prone areas where man had encroached into. The hazard level is validated by a combination of physical exposure and human exposure to the flood inundation process.Floods have been regarded as the top of the most destructive hazards from everlasting. In China, floods account for about 1/3 of all the natural catastrophes and trusty for 30% of the boilersuit economic losses (Cheng, 2009). Furthermore, some south-east Asiatic countries are flood-prone areas, such as Indonesia, Thailand, and Myanmar, which are bearing the disasters from the frequent river and coastal floods. In 2004, the mega-quake, which exceeds magnitude of 9.0, induced a series of destructive tsunamis with the highest wave of 30 meters on the coasts bordering the Indian Ocean. There were over 230,000 victims lost their lives in around 14 countries. Hence, Indonesia was the hardest hit, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand (Paris et al., 2007). Moreover, the tropical cyclone Nargis happened on 2nd May, 2008 attacked the southwesterly Coast of Myanmar. There were 24 million people been affected and rough 50,000 to 100,000 people been kil guide (Ken crystaliseh, 2008).However, flooding is not only the critical issue in Asian, but also in the entire world. In 1927, the United States met the most devastating flooding of the Mississippi River in American history. The levee system was depleted out and submerged 27,000 km2. Because of millions of population living on the Mississippi River, it led over 400 million US dollars in loss and 246 human deaths (Barry, 1998). In Europe, Netherlands had affected by the critical river floods in the past years since the most areas are below the sea level. The worst flood disaster happened in 1953 killed 1,835 people, covered almost 200,000 hectares of land, destroyed 3,000 family houses and 200 farms, and d rowned 47,000 heads of cattle (Lamb and Knud, 1991).The facts mentioned above proven that the global flooding management is increasingly vital to encourage millions of worldwide population from the severe threat. However, because of the high costs and inherent uncertainties, it is insurmountable and unsustainable to build up the absolute flood protection system, but it can be managed to reduce the hazard to lives and property by the most efficient measures. Therefore, flood inundation models become the most useful predictive tools which are used to evaluate and analyse the flood hazards, as well as to improve and mitigate the flood risk management.2.1.3 The Importance of flood inundation modelingFrom the perspectives of physical processes and anthropogenic influence, the floodplain is a dynamic flow environment. Since it is much difficult to handle the confliction among maximising benefit-over-cost ratio and minimising the human impact, the application of inundation modeling be comes the most apparent moderate approach for flood management strategy. Actually, the final objective of flood inundation studies could be minimise susceptibility and vulnerability to loss in both thriftiness and human lives aspects (Parker, 1995). Therefore, it is necessary to use flood inundation models to simulate and predict the possible impacts of floodplain development.The principle of flood inundation models is to allow the upriver flood flow to fulfill directly to the downstream flood extent. Those models become much valuable and helpful flood predictive tools which are able to apply in different real and virtual scenarios for analysis. In parity with those traditional statistical models, which are according to all the numeral data observations of past flood events, the largest advantages of physically-based inundation models are their capability of spatial and secular variables in terms of discharge, water level, velocity, flow duration and inundation extent, on the p rocessive flood events. Meanwhile, they also support the hydro-system operation, flood warning, risk quantification and decision making for the design and planning of flood mitigation measures.Besides, the flood risk maps are able to be determined on the basis of the flood inundation modeling results. They are static two-dimensional maps indicating the flood probability with flood depth and extents, which is usually generated through flood uncertainty quantification techniques, i.e. Monte Carlo Simulation. They are widely adopted by government and insurance company to withdraw areas of land at high risk and guide the investment and necessity response strategies.2.2 LISFLOOD-FP Flood Inundation copyA flood inundation model is an intergraded flood simulation model-chain which includes an estimation of stochastic rainfall, a simulation of rainfall-runoff and an inundation model of flood development (McMillan and Brasington, 2008). For stochastic rainfall estimation of certain catc hment, according to the available precipitation records, a long synthetic rainfall series could be created. Hereafter, these series are applied into a rainfall-runoff model to generate the corresponding discharge estimation series. And the estimations of discharge are imported into a 2-D hydrodynamic model, which utilizes high-re response visor data to enable urban floodplain modeling at the smallest scales and paves the way for additional modules for vulnerability and damage assessment. Finally, the flood inundation model is expected to run indoors a proven uncertainty estimation framework and subsequently to match with the real-world scenarios for model calibration and allow explicit uncertainties analysis.LISFLOOD-FP model is one of the most popular flood inundation models all over the world (Bates and De Roo, 2000). It is a coupled 1D/2D hydraulic model on the basis of a raster storage-battery grid. LISFLOOD-FP model treats the flooding as an intelligent al-Quran-filling pr ocess from the perspective of hydraulic principles by embodying the bring out physical notions of mass conservation and hydraulic connectivity.2.2.1Principles of LISFLOOD-FP Model2.2.1.1Model Structure and ConceptsThe basic lots of the LISFLOOD-FP model is a raster Digital Elevation Model (DEM) (Bates and De Roo, 2000) of resolution and accuracy sufcient to identify bob up roughness for both the stock (location and slope) and those elements of the oodplain topography (dykes, embankments, depressions and former occupations) considered necessary to ood inundation prognostication.A ood consists of a large, low bounteousness wave propagating down valley (Bates and De Roo, 2000). When the bankful ow depth is reached, water stops to be contained only in the main river road and water spills onto adjacent shallow gradient oodplains. These oodplains act either as temporary stores for this water or additional routes for ow conveyance.CUsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers70377552 1QQWinTempRichOleemailprotected)LAKXA1$UE8M8AV.jpgFigure 1 Conceptual model of the LISFLOOD-FP flood inundation model (Wilson, 2003a 2003b)2.2.1.2 Assumptions for LISFLOOD-FP ModelIn order to design a physical model simulating the flood development and to simply the numerical computation, the assumptions are stated as followingsThe flow within highway can be delineate by the kinematic wave approximations.The channel is assumed to be so wide and shallow that the wetted perimeter is approximated by the channel width.The flood flow can be gradually alter.Both In-channel and Out-of-channel flooding flow are treated as raster grids by using a series of memory board discretised cellphones. period mingled with storage cells can be prognosticated using analytical uniform flow formulas, i.e. the Saint-Venant and Manning equivalences.There is no exchange of impetus betwixt main channel and floodplain flows, only mass is exchanged.2.2.2 In-Channel geological periodThe hydraulic mod els consist of two main processes, representing the flow within the channel (In-channel Flow) and flow on the floodplain (Out-of-channel Flow). But we ignore the effects at the channel-oodplain interface development of intense shear layers leads to a strongly libertine and three-dimensional ow eld. In this project, one of the objectives is to quantify the uncertainty associated with the inundation process.In-channel Flow is defined that the channel flow is below bankful depth. Thus, the flow process is represented by using a classical one-dimensional hydraulic purpose approach (1-D approach), which is describe in terms of a simplification of the dear one-dimensional St. Venant comparability system (Knight and Shiono, 1996), which leads to a kinematic wave approximation obtained by eliminating local speedup, convective acceleration and instancy terms in the momentum equation.2.2.2.1 Saint-Venant equalitys collectable to simplicity of computation and ease of parameterization, th e one-dimensional (1-D) Saint-Venant equations have been the most widely adopted approach for un unfaltering open channel flow. The partial differential gear Saint-Venant equations comprise the perseveration and momentum equations under the following assumptions (Chow et al. 1988)Flow is 1-D, and depth and velocity vary only in the longitudinal direction of the channel. hurrying is everlasting, and the water surface is horizontal a tail, any section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.Flow varies gradually along the channel so that hydrostatic pressure prevails and vertical accelerations can be neglected.The longitudinal axis of the channel is approximated as a straight line.The bottom slope of the channel is small and the channel bed is fixed. The effects of scour and deposition are negligible.Resistance coefficients for steady uniform turbulent flow are applicable so that relationships (e.g. Mannings equation) can be used to describe resistance effects.The fluid is incompress ible and constant density throughout the flow.Therefore, the continuity equation states that the change in discharge with distance downstream (), and the change in the bollix up-sectional area of flow over cartridge clip () are in balance. Thus, the lateral inflow ( ) to or from the channel and floodplain can be expressed as (Wilson, 2004).(2.1)where Q is the volumetric discharge in channel L3/T, x is the longitudinal distance along the channel L, t is time interval T, A is the cross-sectional area of flow L2 and q is the lateral inflow from other sources per unit length along channel L2/T.The momentum equation states that total applied forces is fitted to the rate of momentum change in each unit of flow, plus the net outflow of momentum (Chow et al. 1988). For this project, the full dynamic wave equations can be simplified in terms of kinematic wave model. The assumptions are that local acceleration, convective acceleration and pressure terms are ignored, and the flow gravita tional forces are equal to the frictional resistance force. The momentum equation can be indite as(2.2)where is the down-slope of the bed - and is the slope of friction -Roughness coefficients are defined as the resistance to flood flows in channels and floodplains. To introduce Mannings roughness ( n ), the Manning Equation is chosen. Therefore, the friction slope in the momentum equation can be described as(2.3)where R is hydraulic rundle L. Substituting the hydraulic radius, the momentum equation can be written as(2.4)where n is the Mannings coefficient of friction and Pis the wetted perimeter of the flow L.However, for the Equation (2.4), there are some limitations such as only considering the down gradient hydraulic characteristics, and neglecting the backwater effects and shock waves.2.2.2.2 Numerical SolutionThe 1-D Saint-Venant Equations are discretized using numerical methods of a finite difference approximation (Chow, 1988). sprout flow and cross section entertains ar e calculated with a simple linear turning away that uses a backward-difference method to derive the finite difference equations. Therefore, they are combined to obtain the following equations(2.5)where Q is the volumetric discharge in channel L3/T, x is the longitudinal distance along the channel L, t is time interval T, q is the lateral inflow from other sources per unit length along channel L2/T, and is the geometry and frication factor of channel which is written as(2.6)where is the Manning friction coefficient T/ L1/3, is the channel width L, and is the channel slope.Meanwhile, the finite difference equation can be set up in order to calculate the quantity Qi,j at each node (i, j), where i represents the space and j the time (2.7)(2.8)in order to create a linear equation, the value of Q in the expression of Equation (2.5) is found by averaging the following set (2.9)Note All Equations variables refer to the definitions in Figure 2CUsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers70377 5521QQWinTempRichOleH37F%N4L(VS%DNUGX_(I4E.jpgFigure 2 Finite difference box for the linear kinematic wave equation2.2.3. Channel Discretisation by Mesh GenerationIn order to conduct the kinematic wave simulation, the flow domain is spatially discretised into discrete elements or grid cells to represent the arbitrary modling area by numerical pursue times process. It starts at the inflow point of each grid cell with indicator of the direction to the next downstream cell. With the help of Airborne optical maser Altimetry (LiDAR) and Stereo Air-photogrammetry, the high-resolution DEM grid cells are able to contain topographical data, such as channel width, bed slope, manning friction coefcient and bankful depth. Therefore, the numerical solution can be approximate obtained with the advantage of high-performance digital computers and high numerical stability. In this project, the regular high resolution rectangular grids net profit generation is adopted. However, despite that the mesh resolution in the region is increased, it resulted in less smooth of friction coefficients. This is because the polygonal area over which the various friction contributions were averaged was reduced.2.2.4 Out-of-Channel FlowOut-of-Channel flow (i.e. floodplain Flow) is defined that water is transferred from the channel to the adjacent overlying floodplain areas when bankful depth is exceeded by flood. However, the 1-D approach is not suitable to simulate the floodplain flows due to its incapability of capturing velocity variations and barren surface across the channel. Thus, floodplain flows can be similarly described in terms of classical continuity and momentum equations, discretized over a grid of square cells, which allows the model to represent 2-dimensional dynamic flow on the floodplain. Therefore, we assume that each cell is treated as a storage volume and the change in cell volume over time is therefore equal to the uxes into and out of it during the time step (See Fi gure 3, Wilson, 2003a 2003b).(2.10)where is the volume variation L3 of each cell during time T, and , , and are the volumetric flow rate L3/T respectively coming from the up, the down, the left and the right adjacent cells of the grid.CUsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentUsers703775521QQWinTempRichOle7L0)O%E(emailprotectedFigure 3 Flows between cells on the floodplain with LISFLOOD-FP(Wilson, 2003a 2003b)Flow between two cells is assumed to be simply a function of the giving surface point difference between these cells, hence the following discretisation of continuity Equation (2.1) (See Figure 4 5)(2.11)(2.12)(2.13)where is the water free surface height L at the cell node (i,j), and are the cell dimensions L, is the effective grid scale Mannings friction coefficient for the floodplain, andanddescribe the volumetric flow rates L3/T between the floodplain cell node (i,j).CUsersuserDesktop1.jpgFigure 4 Discretization scheme for floodplain gridCUsersDaniel SunAppDataRoamingTencentU sers703775521QQWinTempRichOleMG%D63ODY2$7)H3G4O7OQ.jpgFigure 5 Floodplain Flows between Two CellsThe flow depth,hflow, represents the depth through which water can flow between two cells, and is defined as the difference between the highest water free surface in the two cells and the highest bed peak (this definition has been found to give sensible results for both wetting cells and for flows linking floodplain and channel cells).2.3 Uncertainty in flooding inundation modelingIt is the key factor to reduce or prevent the level of flood hazards that ensuring prediction accurately of the flood inundation area and providing reliable information of risk. In general, the result produced by flood models is only a single deterministic prediction for the peak flow of the flood. However, the confidence level of the output results would be affected by the uncertainty of input data in terms of peak flow, the topographic data, and the model parameters. As a result, the uncertainty associated w ith the flood inundation modeling is seldom quantified, It most likely because that the sources of uncertainty are not totally realised and lack of available data to study uncertainty.Uncertainty analysis of LISFLOOD-FP modeling has been studied in recent years. From those reports, the sources of uncertainty can be summarised into three major catalogues in terms of model data inputs, hydraulics parameters and model structures.2.3.1Model data inputs2.3.1.1 Hydrologic and meteorological data iodin of the most dominant input parameters is the design flow, which comes from flood frequency analysis and provides the boundary condition. However, the uncertainty of steamflow is inherent since it is derived from the stage-discharge rating curves on the basis of flood records, especially for the high-return-period flow events. In summary, there are four types of uncertainties associated with the hydrograph of steamflows, namely (1) watershed characteristics (2) storm precipitation dynamics (3 ) infiltration and (4) antecedent conditions. However, the storm precipitation dynamics has the largest impact on the prediction. Furthermore, the overall prediction of hydrologic models could be increase due to uncertainty-added by lacking of understanding of the spatial and temporal variability in precipitation, evapotranspiration, and infiltration.2.3.1.2 Topographic dataThe topographic data is including both land surface digital elevation model (DEM) and river bed bathymetry. It is one of the dominant factors to predict the flood inundation area accurately. It does not only influence the hydrologic modeling process, but also the mapping water surface elevations. Firstly, the extraction of watershed characteristics (e.g. slope, streams and watershed boundaries) from DEM is affected by its resolution, leading to varied discharge values estimated from the hydrologic model. Secondly, the resolution of DEM and the accuracy of bathymetry affect the cross sections extracted for 1-D cha nnel flow simulation and the interpolated meshes (or grids) for 2-D overland flow simulation. Thirdly, Bales and Wagner (2009) investigated the Tar River flush toilet and revealed that high-quality topographic data, along with the appropriate application of hydraulic models are likely the most important factors affecting the horizontal extent and vertical water surface elevations of flood inundation maps.2.3.2 Model structuresThe flood inundation models are also erogenous to the channel geometry in terms of cross sections number, cross-sectional spacing in between, finite-element mesh quality and hydraulic structures. Additionally, the type of model (1-D, 2-D or coupled) used in simulating the river hydrodynamics also brings uncertainty to the overall results. The geometry representation of channel is more critical to 2-D and (3-D) models since the elevation is defined at each mesh node distributed throughout the channel and floodplains. Moreover, the mesh generation strategies wi ll affect 2- and 3-D models not only in the prediction of inundation area, but also the computational time (Horritt et al. 2006).2.3.3 hydraulics parametersHydraulic models (e.g. 1-D, 2-D or coupled) used to simulate the river hydrodynamics and water surface elevation in floodplain are sensitive to a set of model parameters. Friction values (Mannings roughness coefficient, n), accounting for effects of variable cross sections, non-uniform slope, vegetation and structures at the sub-grid scale, have a significant impact on hydraulic simulations (Merwade et al., 2008).Mannings roughness coefficient (n), which is commonly assigned by using standard look-up tables for different substrate types, can range from 0.035 to 0.065 in the main channel, and 0.080 to 0.150 in the floodplains (Chow et al. 1988). Distributed data throughout the floodplain are seldom available as a basis for estimating friction values for the model domain. Many of the uncertainties in hydraulic models are lumped in the Mannings n value, such that the models can be calibrated through adjusting such a parameter. The difference in magnitude and changing channel conditions will cause the optimal set of parameters to be found in a slightly different area of the parameter space for each different flood event.Wohl (1998) analysed the uncertainty of Mannings n copulation to a commonly used step-backwater model for channel reaches in volt canyon rivers. The results indicated that the uncertainties in discharge estimation resulting from the roughness coefficients in step-backwater modeling of paleo-floods were comparable to or lower than those associated with other methods of indirectly estimation flood discharges. Pappenberger et al. (2005) analysed the uncertainty caused by Mannings n (range from 0.001 to 0.9) in the unsteady flow component of the 1-D model HEC-RAS. The results showed that many parameter sets could perform equally well even with extreme values. However, this was dependent on the mod el region and boundary conditions. Pappenberger et al. (2007) employed a fuzzy set approach for calibrating flood inundation models under the uncertainties of roughness and cross-section. The roughness of channel has been identified as more sensitive than the standard deviation of the cross-section.2.4 Integrated modeling and uncertainty analysis frameworkFlood risk maps are critical to help manage the risk of inundation, which are generated based on good understanding of the uncertainty associated with the various variables involved in flood inundation modeling. A sequential process is normally adopted, where hydrologic analysis starts first, and then hydraulic analysis and geospatial processing will follow.Merwade et al. (2008) proposed a conceptual fr